James Manson. May 2018.
Abstract
The ubiquity of the internet and subsequent convergence of technology and culture, combined with the functionality of social media has allowed for new media technologies to be utilised by indigenous and marginalised communities as an effective mode of communication that crosses several cultural, geographic and political lines. Social media has the capacity to democratise and empower users but also to homogenise and pervert understandings depending on its uses. This study has identified that the discussions surrounding issues dealing with indigenous and marginalised communities in Australia are not only proliferated within these communities themselves, but people are often mobilised in response to various crises and citizen reports. This uncovered an interesting mechanism whereby uninvolved agents within various political communities and special interest groups hijacked these issues surrounding indigenous and marginalised peoples, in order to, promote a loosely related agenda. Politics, power, fear, left vs right-wing politics, political correctness and human rights are identified as often at the heart of these discussions and require a discerning eye when navigating social media.
Keywords: Indigenous Communities Online, Social Media, Participatory Culture, Citizen Journalism, Social Capital.
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Contentious Conversations: Race, Religion and Participation Within the New Media Landscape
The rise of Web 2.0 and the subsequent popularity of social media being used as a primary mode of communication (Han 2011, 35-36) (Bakardjieva 2011, 59-60) has created an environment whereby agents of various special interest groups (Edutopia, 2013), in this case, displaced indigenous communities, are able to play a significant part in online communities and participate in discussions with new efficacy and social capital (Soriano 2011, 1-2) (Flew 2014. 66-7). Social media facilitates the coverage of and discussion surrounding crises through citizen journalism and other forms of online participation. This new communications paradigm has led to indigenous social media based communities collaborating and organising themselves across cultural and geographic borders in order mobilise and ultimately be a voice for the fidelity of the social and civic structures that govern our everyday lives. Case studies and historical events have been analysed to both provide context and highlight the importance of understanding the politics and cultural forces at play when attempting to understand these communities. The International Committee of the Red Cross reported in 2009 that “displacement is frequently caused by violations of international humanitarian law (IHL) or fundamental human rights” (ICRC 2009). This paper analyses Australian Aboriginals, as internally displaced in this manner, as well as, refugees ingenious to various parts of the world as externally displaced. The aim of this paper is to examine social media’s impact on the dissemination of information and discussions dealing with crises of displaced indigenous communities. After an event or issue is publicised and discussed online, some debates and organisations gain enough traction to mobilise and ultimately influence social and civic structures. To what effect are the new and social media landscapes being used and how has this influenced discussions around power and democracy. The first examples look at social media influence on indigenous issues and highlight the mechanism whereby polarised communities form on either side of these issues as they battle to affect social and civic structures. The second set of examples looks at indigenous activism in Western Australia and highlights the importance of understanding the social and cultural factors specific to the communities involved when crises occur. The third example depicts a case of communities forming two opposing interest groups in a heated debate. This serves to draw parallels between internally and externally displaced peoples living in Australia and exemplifies marginalised, indigenous communities mobilising in physical space. These examples are limiting in that these issues, while often heavily reported on through social and traditional media, vary in their bias. This does, however, serve to further highlight the polarised and often heated nature of each community’s discussions that simmer long after the catalysing event or issue has been raised.
Figure 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7FtjtF4gM0
Social Media and Politics.
Displacement and Politics.
In 2014, Scott Ludlam rose to speak on behalf of The Greens party to a virtually empty chamber to deliver a speech framed as a direct letter to the then prime minister, Tony Abbott. Inciting issues like the treatment of indigenous peoples and their land, government housing initiatives, as well as, financial dealings surrounding Western Australia’s, then booming, mining industry. The video of this speech went viral and polarised discussions were again sparked on some of the issues he raised (Greens MP’s 2014).
Ludlam’s tone was terse and his oratory was ultimately effective in sparking discussions online. Designed and posed as critique, now ex-Senator Ludlam’s delivery to a virtually empty cabinet can be seen as a stunt, hijacking the issues of the day in order to gain political power. It’s effectiveness online is an example of Petray’s (2011) notions of effective online campaigns being “integrated as one component of the overarching social movement, rather than the only component”. Here, Ludlam and The Greens wield this mechanism to great effect. However, the colonially rooted political system they operate in undermines the attitudes and values they are attempting to promote. The next year in 2015, IQ2 broadcast a debate, posing the question: Is Australia really a multicultural safe haven of equal opportunity? Or is racism more prevalent than ever before? (CNN 2016). Stan Grant rose to speak and gave chilling yet familiar accounts of the aboriginal people’s history. The discourse was very different from that of Senator Ludlam, however, the two ‘viral’ videos worked in thematic symbiosis.
Grant’s speech is an example of dissemination of issues flowing from social media to the political forum. Here, main-stream activism fuelled by issues and events that have been discussed and conflated online. This example aligns with Petray’s (2011) notions of effective online protest with greater fidelity than that of The Greens and Senator Ludlam. However, its effectiveness is helped by Grant’s indigeneity combined with his standing within the broader community as a journalist and political commentator who often challenges common negative beliefs and attitudes surrounding Aboriginal people. One year later in January of 2016, a group of Western Australian Aboriginal protestors set up a pseudo-refugee camp in response to the Government’s multi-billion dollar spend that year on refugee services and detention centres (McNeil 2016). Claiming that the Government is ignoring the countries internally displaced indigenous population, the protest, held on Herrison Island, received heavy media attention and the ensuing debate amongst various communities was highlights both the democratising effect that social media is able to provide, as well as, the problematic systems that these communities are operating within.
Figure 2: https://twitter.com/iwinaus/status/725949318935384065
Perspectives and Online Activism
Deadly, Unna?
Here, events have been highlighted that catalysed heated online debate throughout online communities surrounding the best political, social and cultural attitudes and values for the political framework to adopt. We can see the proliferation of these events within Australian social and mainstream media. Organisations like JJJ (owned by the ABC) have partnered with celebrities like A.B. Original, Paul Kelly and Dan Sultan to promote changing the date of Australia Day to recognise the atrocities that day represents for the indigenous population (triple j 2016. 1:45).
Noteworthy here, however, is some of the responses to the idea that changing the date will be a point of departure in race relations as opposed to a point of arrival. These discussions, as well as, new media and the internets’ ability to empower and democratise has given a voice and a platform for indigenous leaders to emerge within the new media landscape. Artists like Baker Boy (Indigenous Hip Hop Projects 2017) and B-Town Warriors (DeasertPeaMedia 2016) are producing music that represents their point of view and prevailing issues within a community that didn’t often communicate to broad audiences with such cultural candour.
Often dialoguing with issues like the stolen generation, substance abuse, the penal system, cross-cultural relations and significant events in Aboriginal history like colonisation juxtaposed with the Redfern address, and Sorry Day.
Figure 3: https://twitter.com/DeanBarron7/status/962205608958033922
Two sides of the gun.
The communications on social media between online communities with opposing ideas are often heated. With examples of emotional flurries (see Figure 3) and problematic discourse (see Figure 4) we see social media use around these issues as “allowing for the ‘creation of new transcultural forms’ (Ashcroft et al., 2003:118) in much the same way as colonisation did, by opening up spaces for interactions” (Petray 2015. 924). It is evident here, that achieving these ‘new transcultural forms’ is a process that happens on an individual and community level. This poses its own problems when navigating the road to empowerment and democracy through means of the internet, especially when analysing communities and online discussions so generally. The argument is posed, contrary to Landzelius (2006), notions cited in (Petray 2015. 924) that “Unlike web pages of the earlier years of cyber-activism, which had a tendency to essentialize Indigenous groups as a political tactic”. Both Figure 1and Scott Ludlam’s address dialogues with representations of the dominant culture homogenising elements of the other for the purpose of gaining social or political capital, ‘winning’ the debate or to plainly humiliate.
Social Media and Citizen Journalism.
More Reel?
Throughout the evolution of social media platforms, the reporting of and the conversation around issues surrounding displaced peoples has intensified due to social media’s potential to place users on an even footing. In this case, by way of an account profile affording users with access to a computer or smartphone and the internet, similar functionality and an ability to contribute and be heard (Lumby 2010, 69) (Soriano 2011, 1-2). Citizen journalism is a concept that, for the most part, lacks a definitive definition. However, a view similar to that of Wall’s (2015) has been adopted for continuity. She writes:
“Citizen journalism is defined as news content (text, video, audio, interactive, etc.) produced by non-professionals. Such content may capture a single moment (e.g., witnessing an event), be intermittent (e.g., a Twitter feed), or be regularly produced such as by hyperlocal news operators”.
Under the new journalistic paradigm, readers are able to view and share newsworthy information and stories in new and creative ways. On a more sinister of notes, 2016 saw several more protests between Australian Aboriginals and police that were proliferated by the response to events via social media. In August, protesters turned riotous at the Kalgoorlie Courthouse after the death of 14-year-old Elijah Doughty (SMH, 2016). This is an example of the power of social media in mobilising indigenous communities for the sake of protest, violent and problematic as it was. Events such as this reinforce Bimber (2003), Hill and Hughes (1998) notions, cited by Soriano (2011, 3) that the internet, instead of an empowering or democratizing system actually instilled similar “structures that determine[d] offline participation and deliberation”. Going on to explain that “internet use will only help facilitate the active political mobilisation of those already represented and politically active offline. Contrary to Jenkins’ notions that “the internet opened a floodgate for young people, whose passions are finally being herd” (2006, 240), whereby online participation is democracy fulfilled. The silver lining to this case, however, is that the communities involved garnered enough public attention that incarceration protocols were changed and staff disciplined.
Another side to this complex situation is the impact of digital media being released publically and the subsequent response from, in this case, many online communities and organisations. Released by court order in December 2016, was the footage of the final moments of Australian indigenous woman ‘Ms Dhus’ life (name altered out of respect). The footage, taken in August of 2014, shows disturbing scenes of the lead up to her death while in custody for unpaid fines (ABC 2016). Shrouded in controversy and exacerbated by similar issues throughout Australian history both recent and historical, this narrative and so many like it cycles through trending topics and related hashtags online.
Figure 4: https://twitter.com/DebKilroy/status/809616433478893568
An Image Worth 1000 Tweets
Figure 5: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Alan_Kurdi
Transpiring parallel to these escalating racial relations in Australia is a debate, as previously touched on, that surrounds the immigration and social integration refugees from around the world. Interesting to this analysis is the potential power that images and videos possess to affect public opinion and prevailing values and attitudes during the coverage and discussion of these issues. Mortensen (2016) discusses these uses and various publics’ response to images shared online during the 2015 European refugee crisis.
Figure 7: https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/gallery/moroccan-tribute-to-aylan-kurdi-6415197
She attributes the ubiquity of the internet and portable devices increased the sheer volume and speed of circulation and dissemination. Also noting the moments and attributes of images that serve as catalysts to heated debate.
“In contrast to the great quantity of pictures disseminated in today’s connective media (Van Dijck, 2013), a few photographs gain momentum and are declared to be ‘icons’. They stand out from the image abundance, grasp the attention of a broad, transnational public, and stir emotional reactions and heated debates. Usually, these iconic images are related to major news events and represent an ongoing conflict or crisis in society in a simple, univocal manner” (Mortensen 2016. 409-10).
In this example, it is evident that images of incidences and events have the power– when shared online – to not only capture attention but spark emotional, heated discussions between participating agents and their various audiences and publics. Often colliding with traditional media, these images experience dissemination across a variety of platforms that develop into “frames of reference for a large, sometimes even global, public.
Usually, they emerge in connection with situations or phenomena that already have status as news or media events. But they may also generate and drive these events themselves.” (Mortensen 2016. 411). A local example of this mechanism is the response to increased Muslim refugee immigration to Australia and the polarised and heated debates it has sparked (IBT, 2016).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGwHXPFRRRo
Conclusions and Model for Further Research
The ubiquity of the internet, as well as, converged technologies and culture, combined with the functionality of social media has allowed for new media and new media technology to be utilised by indigenous and marginalised communities as an effective mode of communication that crosses several cultural, geographic and political lines. Agents within displaced communities have a new found ability to communicate and collaborate across these lines. It has the capacity to democratise and empower users but also to homogenise and pervert understandings depending on its uses. This study has revealed that issues from within and surrounding indigenous and marginalised communities in Australia, are not only discussed within these communities but agents are mobilised in response to various crises and citizen reports. This uncovered an interesting mechanism whereby uninvolved agents within various political communities and special interest groups hijacked these issues surrounding indigenous and marginalised peoples, in order to, promote a loosely related agenda. Politics, power, fear, left vs right-wing politics, political correctness and human rights are at the heart of many of these discussions and require a discerning eye when navigating throughout social media.
References:
ABC. 2016. Ms Dhu death in custody: Coroner reserves decision on releasing CCTV footage. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-28/family-plead-for-footage-of-ms-dhus-final-moments-released/7883802
Bakardjieva, Maria. 2011. “The Internet in Everyday Life: Exploring the Tenets and Contributions of Diverse Approaches”. In The Handbook of Internet Studies, Mia Consalvo and Charles Ess, eds., 59-82. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
CNN. 2016. ‘My people die young in this country’ speech go…. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eA3UsF8yyho
DesertPeaMedia. 2016. “B-Town Warriors – ‘People of the Red Sunset’”. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Widykor9c5Y
Edutopia. 2013. Henry Jenkins on Participatory Culture (Big Thinkers Series). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gPm-c1wRsQ
Flew, Terry. 2014. New Media. 4th ed. Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press.
Han, Sam. 2011. Web 2.0. New York, NY: Routledge.
Jenkins, Henry. 2006. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: NYU Press. Accessed April 5, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central.
Lumby, Bronwin. 2010. “Cyber-Indigeneity: Urban Indigenous identity on FaceBook”. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education. Vol 39. 68-75
IBT. 2016. Hack Live Aussie Patriots 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGwHXPFRRRo
Indigenous Hip Hop Projects. 2017. “’Baker Boy’ – Cloud9 (feat Kian)”. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iwAn9gTY4w
International Committee of the Red Cross. 2009. Internal Displacement in Armed Conflict: Facing Up to the Challenges. ICRC. Geneva: Switzerland. https://www.icrc.org/en/publication/4014-internal-displacement-armed-conflict-facing-challenges
McNeil, Heather. 2015. “Aboriginal protesters return to Herrison Island for ‘refugee camp’”. http://www.watoday.com.au/wa-news/aboriginal-protesters-return-to-heirisson-island-for-refugee-camp-20160120-gmaco5.html
Soriano, Cheryll. 2011. “The Art of Indigenous Online Dissent: Negotiating Technology, Indigeneity, and activism in the Cordillera.” Telematics and Informatics. Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, National University of Singapore. Blk (AS6): 03-41.
Sydney Morning Herald (SMH), The. 2016. Kalgoorlie Riots: Police Under Pressure. https://www.smh.com.au/video/video-news/video-wa-news/kalgoorlie-riots-police-under-pressure-20160831-4k06t.html
Triple j. 2016. A.B. Original ft. Paul Kelly – Dumb Things (Like A Version Cover). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICcewg7fxho
Wall Melissa. 2015. Citizen Journalism, Digital Journalism, 3:6, 797-813. DOI: 10.1080/21670811.2014.1002513. https://www-tandfonline-com.dbgw.lis.curtin.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1080/21670811.2014.1002513
Hi James,
This was an interesting read! I like that you’ve addressed, in your words, “two sides of the gun” when it comes to online activism. It’s an unfortunate reality that people will use the experiences of others (usually marginalised groups) for their own gain – especially in politics. I’d like to hear your thoughts on whether the negative impacts of social media for Indigenous people outweigh the positive ones? And if so, what do you think needs to be done to tackle them? I don’t think there’s a definite answer, so don’t feel pressured, but I’m curious to know what you think!
On another note – I like that you’ve included videos in your post. They gave some extra context and broke up the reading nicely!
Looking forward to hearing your ideas,
Kelsey
Hey Kelsey,
Thanks for taking the time, glad we could draw some parallels.
In response to your questions, I don’t feel like I have the authority to speculate much further than I did. I feel limited by my context as a Caucasian, middle to upper-class, (semi) educated, Australian male. If I were to perform further investigations into this topic I would first invite an online community and/or indigenous leader, not only to narrow and validate my argument but moderate a discussion on use cases and recommend courses of action in order to ultimately foster online environments that are both socially relevant and culturally sensitive.
I do, however, subscribe to the belief that we (greater society) have the capacity to create safe, culturally rich and diverse online spaces. Although, I’d propose putting things into practice becomes problematic when people from one culture seeks to ‘fix’ issues pertaining to another. For example, most of history.
I hope this answered your question and wasn’t too much of a sidestep. I’d be curious to know what some of the staff from the Centre for Aboriginal Studies have to say about both the ideas presented in my paper, as well as, my position on this topic.
*tips hat*
James
Hi James. Great answer – I should have considered that before asking that question. I agree, it would be difficult and probably futile for us to try and evaluate the experiences of people whose lives we will never truly understand. I would also love to hear from an Indigenous leader (or any Indigenous person, really) about their perspective on this topic.
Hi James
Thanks for an interesting and well-researched read! Importantly, you note how online debate in particular is often heated, unconstructive or problematic, among your examples citing Milo Yiannopoulos’s visit to Australia and the unrest resulting from the death of an Indigenous teenager by hit-and-run. This is an important observation as it points towards how online participation can be a fraught activity, especially across political and social divides. You illustrate that while social media can be successful in mobilising political action, by the same token it can incite bigotry and hate.
I am interested in this conflict and seeming paradox. What do you think are the particular characteristics of social media that allow these flare ups? I wonder if it has something to do with the immediate and fleeting nature of content dissemination, coupled with the asynchronous nature of comment and reply, meaning users simply don’t have time to engage properly before the current issue is superseded by the ‘next big thing’. Perhaps homogenous Facebook groups provide a ‘breathing space’ as such for like-minded individuals to assess issues and build opinions.
I don’t really touch on this conflict in my paper so it was interesting to read your perspective. It’s made me think again about how power works through digital networks – those in established organisations and/or positions of power may again have an advantage over individuals who engage in ad hoc online debate as their stances are perhaps already well known and supported, meaning they experience less call to ‘explain’ or defend their positions.
The only thing I wondered about was the religion aspect of the title – what were your thoughts?
Thanks for sharing!
Hi Carmen, Thanks for your thoughts and kind words!
In relation to characteristics of social media that exacerbate crises, yes, I think people get disenchanted by immediacy and the constant flow of media and delivery of sensationalised views. Yes, people and entire communities can become insulated within their specific groups by choice and/or algorithmic delivery. Yes, people are often living busy lives and are often unable to engage issues with great fidelity and fervour. However, I see the current state of social media and its uses as an extension, or another revolution in the cycle of converging media technologies whereby the medium is the message (Jenkins, McLuhan respectively).
In essence, I think the characteristics of different groups and ideological representations would be a more illuminating investigation, hence the vague reference to religiosity in the title. While no specific religions are discussed, it is evident where issues rooted in religious ideology and power is prevalent. Australia was invaded by predominantly Christian colonisers and this influences the values, attitudes and functionality of the systems that are adhered to within society and therefore largely influences online discussions. Thanks for mentioning this, I’d love to elaborate on this aspect of my paper as links can be drawn between many more groups and cultures around the world.
What interests me now is the ways in which different institutions and organisations are leveraging these platforms for various purposes. Platforms rise, gain popularity, marketers enter, other political and organisational entities enter. Perhaps it’s a little cynical and selective, I’d be interested to hear your thoughts on it all.