Abstract:
In the contemporary digital age and the transition to the Web 2.0 in which many Web platforms followed the trend of becoming participatory instead of media syndicate-like, fandoms have become participatory. In fandoms where the subject is a media figure community have become a place in which fans actively engage with the media figure, whether is through social media interaction or even content creation. This paper explores how parasocial relationships (one-way emotional relationships between a fan and a media figure) are a key part in the success of these online communities. Drawing on the foundational theories of Horton and Wohl (1956) and subsequent expansions by scholars such as Senft (2013) and Lotun et al. (2024), this paper argues that the perceived emotional fulfilment provided by parasocial connections fosters a heightened sense of belonging among fans which strengthens their loyalty to the community, this loyalty and belonging increases the users’ desire to actively engage with content of the community; and with todays’ algorithm based Web platforms, engagement leads to content being favoured by the algorithm, thus increasing the success of the content created by the community as it is now being shown to more people. This paper also looks at the critiques that question the depth and inclusivity of parasocial fandoms. Additionally, this paper explores how the shared emotional investments of fans create powerful communal bonds capable of mobilising large-scale collective action. However, it also addresses how intense loyalty can give rise to exclusionary practices and toxic behaviours that threaten community cohesion. In conclusion, the paper contends that despite pitfalls, contemporary digital fandoms that focus on a particular media figure are the driving force behind the success and cohesion of the community that surrounds it.

In the digital age, the interconnectedness of online platforms has afforded fan communities, referred to as fandoms, new ways to engage. Fandoms are no longer passive groups of fans; they now present themselves as participatory communities in which fans engage directly through social media and are able to show support through comments/likes and content creation, such as fanart, music, and reviews. As a result, online fandoms have become a key part in contemporary digital culture. This paper will explore the communities created around fandoms for media figures – communities built on the shared admiration of a media figure. This paper recognises a difference between a fandom around a favourite brand or product and one with a media figure as its focal point. The primary distinction between these types of fandoms is the emotional connection between the fans and the media figures. This paper will argue that these one-directional relationships are a driving force behind the success and cohesion of online fandom communities.
A parasocial interaction as coined by Horton and Wohl (1956), refers to a one-sided relationship between a media consumer (such as a film star, television host, or radio personality) in which the consumer feels emotionally connected to the figure. Although the relationship is inherently unreciprocated as the media figure is unaware of the individual’s existence it can still feel psychologically and emotionally meaningful. This illusion of interaction is sustained through the media figure’s use of informal tone, direct address, and consistent eye contact, which together simulate the dynamics of real social engagement.

Parasocial relationships were first introduced by Horton and Wohl (1956) as a response to mass media, specifically radio and television. They explored the audience dynamics and how audiences developed unidirectional emotional connections with media figures (like radio hosts or TV personalities). Horton and Wohl’s definition emphasised the one-sided nature of the parasocial relationship, with mention that the media figure was unaware of the audience member who had developed the connection and that there was no reciprocity or direct interaction. Despite this, they explored how the illusion of intimacy was still present due to audience members feeling emotionally connected to language such an informal tone or speech from the media figure that sounds as if the viewer is being addressed by the media figure directly. Additionally, consistent eye contact simulated real-life social interactions. This model firmly held the audiences’ role as a viewer/listener, that they were a passive consumer of the content with little means of engagement. The model was supported and by Giles (2002) who also expanded that parasocial relationships can be impactful and meaningful in the psychological sense to the audience.
However, with the advent of the Web 2.0 the dynamic of a parasocial relationship has evolved. As Web platforms became more collaborative  the passive role of the audience member has transformed. Audiences now engage with the media figure in more direct ways such as through likes, and comments, which in some cases may even prompt the media figure to directly respond to. This is an evolution of parasocial interactions as it further deepens the illusion of reciprocity as the interactions are now more interactive and can feel more mutual, despite this, these relationships still remain inherently one-sided. A further evolution on the parasocial relationship is the rise of micro-celebrities, a term coined by Senft (2013). Micro-celebrities as Senft puts it are digital media figures who craft relatable personas that encourage the audience to feel like they have a personal relationship with the micro-celebrity.

Parasocial relationships, and the fandoms that surround them can potentially fulfill several emotional needs, such as companionship, validation and a sense of belonging, which are considered important to human motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, pp. 500-503). While common sentiment is that parasocial relationships are merely a substitute for lonely people and are only temporary stand-ins for real in-person social interactions, Lotun et al. (2024) argue that parasocial relationships have their own advantages. They suggest that they provide stability over traditional relationships due to their omnidirectional nature. Because the audience member is not engaged directly it means that the relationship cannot be suddenly betrayed or abandoned, and that the content will remain accessible for the user to return to, even in the event of a death of the media figure. Across three studies Lotun et al. (2024) found that participants perceived that their parasocial relationship can fulfil their emotional needs similarly to traditional two-sided relationships.  Parasocial relationships are experienced individually, however, the shared experience of others within the fandom allow for these emotional investments to become shared, thus creating a communal bond between members of a fandom, contributing to the sense of belonging due to the shared mutual understanding.  This heightened sense of belonging contributes to the success and cohesion of these fandoms. If one were to derive engagement as success, then the success is measurable in that the parasocial fandom increases content engagement (Wolff & Shen, 2024, pp. 1342-1343). The cohesion is particularly evident in fan-driven campaigns, such as movements to defend a particular media personality, increase viewership or in the case of PewDiePie’s fanbase an increase in YouTube Subscriptions with their “Subscribe to PewDiePie” campaign in which there was collective action to ensure he remained the most subscribed Youtuber, which demonstrates that parasocial relationships can be leveraged for community-driven goals (Kim et al., 2023).

Parasocial fans develop a deep sense of loyalty towards the media figure that they share a parasocial relationship with. The loyalty is fuelled by the emotional connection to the figure, specifically in regard to micro-celebrities, the emotional connection is towards the persona (Senft, 2013). This loyalty manifests itself in a way that encourages active engagement, support, and regular consumption of the content pertaining to the persona – even when faced with external challenges, such as paying for a subscription to a Twitch streamer being out of their means yet paying for one despite this fact. The loyalty also extends to defending the creator in times when the creator is under criticism as the parasocial viewer feels negative emotions towards criticisms much like one does for their real-life interpersonal relationships. Typically, this manifests itself in the form of using platforms to discredit detractors or general “flame wars” as seen in case in which prominent Minecraft Youtuber Dream’s fandom, referred to as  “Dream stans” were accused of sending death threats and engaging in harassment towards the YouTube Creator “Awesome Nintendo Facts” (abbreviated to ANF). The controversy began on Twitter when ANF quote-tweeted Dream, criticising his popularity and calling him undeserving. In response to the Dream stans mobilising on Twitter to send harassment and death threats a countermovement against the fandom “#canceldreamstans“ was created. This prompted the Dream stan community to further mobilise and parody this hashtag with one called “#SHOOTERS4DREAM”, which quickly gained negative attention, as it was seen as insensitive and poorly timed due to the mass shootings that happened in America Atlanta, Georgia in March of 2021 which had occurred a few days prior to the “#SHOOTERS4DREAM” hashtag. The situation highlighted the intense loyalty the fandom held for Dream as well as the community’s ability to mobilise and defend the micro-celebrity (Senft, 2013). Another phenomenon that occurs with these fandoms is the “internal policing” they engage in, fandom members over time establish norms that they ensure other members adhere to. In the best of times, it involves fandoms calling out inappropriate behaviour, however at its worst it involves ostracization on those whose opinions dissent from the group as a collective. The internal policing reinforces the cohesion within the fandom. Therefore, parasocial relationships deepen the loyalties fans feel towards the personality which in turn causes them to develop defence mechanisms when a creator is attacked  or scrutinised as they feel a personal connection to the media figure.

While this paper has argued that parasocial relationships are the driving force behind the success and cohesion of online fandom communities, it is important to consider critiques that challenge this view. Some scholars such as Busse (2013), argue that these relationships do not truly foster cohesion, that they’re more volatile, chaotic, and harmful than they appear on the surface. Busse (2013) discussed how the internal policing of these fandoms lead to exclusionary practices, such as gender exclusion, undermining a community cohesion as well as hurting its success due the harm done to inclusivity of the fandom and broader engagement being gatekept due to the exclusion of certain groups. Additionally, there are arguments that the types of engagement produced by these types of relationships lack substance and are thus, shallow. Stewart (2023)’s work where he explores how fandoms create criteria for what is considered appropriate in the fandom supports the sentiment that the engagement is shallow as the group is now prioritising adherence to norms over “meaningful” connections. There is concern that because parasocial bonds are unreciprocated that there is no mechanism to allow of accountability, mutual understanding or even compromise in value systems. This may mean that the cohesion in fandoms are superficial and are perhaps more built upon a shared obsession with a media figure rather than interpersonal connection between people with a shared interest. Using the lens of parasocial fandoms being chaotic and volatile one can see communities uniting towards their common cause (their chosen figure) can easily be used in toxic ways, such as harassment campaigns, death threats, and the cancelling of dissenters from within their group and outside their group. In such a case one would be hard pressed to call a community that is policed through fear of ostracization a “cohesive” one. As with the Dream case mentioned previously, creation of hashtags like “#SHOOTERS4DREAM”, harassment campaigns, and death threats illustrated how the loyalty of these groups mutated into something toxic, this undermines positive community building and also alienates less radical fans, thus actually being counterproductive in contributing to the success of the fandom due to people not wanting to engage, whether it be for optics reasons or out of concerns for safety.

In conclusion, online fandom is a prevalent part of contemporary Internet culture and that parasocial relationships that these fandoms derive from play an important part in the success of the fandoms. These unidirectional connections between fans and media figures are able to provide some fulfilment in emotional and psychological needs, and the communities are able to provide a sense of belonging, this in turn incentivises active participation with the community and thus, contributing to its success. The shared emotional investment allows the fandom members to form bonds that further bolster the sense of purpose. This sense of purpose feeds into the cohesiveness of the fandoms allowing for fan-driven campaigns – which then again is another form of active engagement contributing to the success, as seen in movements like “Subscribe to PewDiePie”. While critiques exist regarding the exclusionary behaviour of fandoms, that rightfully identify that they can hinder the fandom’s success due to the ostracization of individuals who could also be contributing to engagement, the core of the parasocial relationship is essential in creating the cohesion in the fandom due to the shared experience of the emotional connection brining members of the fandom together, which allows them to collaborate and support their creator. We have seen an evolution in parasocial relationships when going from legacy media such as television and radio to the Web 2.0 it leads one to wonder what further evolutions are instore for parasocial relationships as new technologies continue to be built.

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