Abstract

This paper explores how X (formerly Twitter) acts as an online network to drive social change through grassroots movements. Examining the #MeToo and #BlackLivesMatter movements demonstrates how the platform rapidly spreads information, mobilises communities, and pressures institutions and political leaders to act. Hashtags and trending topics allow users to bypass traditional media to highlight social injustices and shape public discourse on the issues of these movements. X has emerged today as a powerful online network that empowers its users to engage in global conversations, raise awareness of social injustices, and pressure institutions and political leaders to act.

Introduction

Grassroots movements have been elevated on the X platform by providing a decentralised platform to engage in social discourse, foster cohesion, and consolidate community discussions to create social change.

Launched as Twitter in 2006, X is now a leading digital space for public debate and collective action. Conceived initially as a microblogging platform, it now serves its users as a distributed online network that connects people in real-time across geographic and cultural boundaries.

Users of the platform bypass traditional media platforms to share content, engage in debate, and bring visibility to social causes that have historically been overlooked. The social movements of #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo demonstrate X’s ability to rapidly spread information and galvanize community support that delivers real-world change through political and business responses.

With approximately 611 million monthly active users as of 2025 (DemandSage, 2025), X has become a powerful tool for social activism by mobilising people online to raise awareness and champion social injustices.

Uniting Communities online

Hashtags and Trending Topics are critical features on X facilitating the formation of online networks. They allow users of the platform to organise themselves around shared causes, support the rapid dissemination of information, and allow for the mobilisation of action in both online and offline environments (Brünker et al., 2020).  

Unlike traditional media outlets like newspapers and television, which control and filter the narratives they promote, X operates a decentralised model where no central authority exists. Grassroots movements can gain global attention based on how users interact with content posted by commenting, linking, or sharing it with fellow users (Brunner & Auger, 2018).

Using hashtags within content published on the platform connects individuals, organisations, and groups. Hashtags form the foundation for creating an online network that makes content searchable and accessible for conversations beyond a user’s immediate social circle.

Survivors of workplace sexual assault and harassment effectively used the #MeToo hashtag on X to form an online network. Its adoption formed a community where victims could empower one another, bring their stories to light, and demand action. The effectiveness of the hashtag on X is highlighted by Bogen et al. (2019) who note, “The sheer volume of users who engaged with the hashtag #MeToo to disclose personal experiences of violence is notable and suggests that #MeToo functioned as a space for community formation”.

The success of using hashtags to create an online network for campaigning social change extends beyond the #MeToo movement. Racial injustices have been evaluated online using the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter. Its adoption online spread to mainstream media, prompting widespread attention to systemic racism, police brutality, and calls for justice in cases involving racial violence. As highlighted by Shahin et al. (2021), “The killing of George Floyd by a White police officer in the summer of 2020 inspired a spate of Black Lives Matter (BLM) demonstrations around the globe. From Kingston to Kyoto, Cape Town to Copenhagen, millions spilled into the streets holding BLM placards, demanding “Justice for George Floyd””.

The trending topics feature on X is a real-time news filter that surfaces discussions gaining local and global traction. Topics are elevated to users’ attention based on the frequency and velocity of hashtags and keywords.  Highlighting these topics draws users’ attention to conversations that promote discourse (Bruns & Burgess, 2011). Trending topics not only facilitate engagement but also help form online networks for social change, as seen in the virality of #MeToo, which was used over 55,000 times within 24 hours of Alyssa Milano’s tweet (Bogen et al., 2019).

Combating Racism and Racial Inequality through #BlackLivesMatter

A study conducted by Powell et al. (2023) identified that in 2020, the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter was retweeted 2.96 million times (Powell, 2023). Its prominent use on X is linked to George Floyd’s death that year. Captured on video and shared online via X, it highlighted the social injustices and discrimination African Americans, particularly men, faced when it comes to their treatment by the justice system. While initially starting as a grassroots movement within a networked community on X, it quickly expanded beyond the digital space into public protests worldwide. Through both online and offline activism, it pressured politicians to enact change.

The #BlackLivesMatter hashtag became a critical tool in organising the movement to promote social discourse. Between May to June 2020, more than 12 million tweets on X included the hashtag. It acted as a rallying point online to coordinate public protests to demand action for change. The protests peaked on 30 May and 6 June, when demonstrators took place in over 300 and 420 cities worldwide, respectively (Williams, Mezey, & Singh, 2021). An estimated 20 million people participated in these protests as a “defiant display of public mourning and righteous rage” (Francis & Wright-Rigueur, 2021).

One of the largest protests to take place occurred in Washington, D.C. More than 190,000 protesters are estimated to have turned out in support of the Black Lives Matter movement on 6 June 2020 (Williams, Mezey, & Singh, 2021). The lasting impact was recognised by local officials who authorised the streets leading up to the White House to be renamed Black Lives Matter Plaza. The words “Black Lives Matter” were painted across two blocks leading up to the White House to recognise the importance of the movement. As noted by Coleman (2024), the change “boldly and brightly illustrate that our Black lives mattered” (Coleman, 2024). The recognition of the movement in this way symbolised its transition from an online movement to one firmly reinforced in the public consciousness. It marked a permanent and visible statement to highlight the need for social change.

More importantly, the discourse created using the #BlackLivesMatter hashtag on X extended beyond public protest and recognition. In the six months following the death of George Floyd, nearly 100 new state laws were passed in the United States targeting the use-of-force and police accountability (Murakawa, 2023). Among the first laws passed was the Eric Garner Anti-Chokehold Act, enacted on June 12, 2020, in New York, which banned the use of chokeholds or similar restraint methods, making it a criminal offense for police officers (Leuschner & Fernández Pinto, 2022).

Uniting Victims of sexual harassment and violence through #MeToo

Like the #BlackLivesMatter movement, X transformed the grassroots movement #MeToo into a prominent political conversation, pressuring political and business leaders to address systemic issues of sexual harassment and violence. The hashtag #MeToo played a critical role in amplifying the voices of many online to champion the cause for change. Following Alyssa Milano’s tweet and use of the #MeToo hashtag on October 15, 2017, it was tweeted on X more than one million times within 24 hours (Williams, Singh, & Mezey, 2019)​. By the end of January 2018, the number of tweets containing #MeToo had grown to over 6.5 million (Hosterman et al., 2018)​. As noted by Williams, Singh, and Mezey (2019), the use of the hashtag enabled the movement to transition from a private act of solidarity to a public forum where people could share their experiences without fear of isolation, dismissal, or retribution.

Through collective storytelling via an online network on X, victims of sexual harassment and violence were able to bring to life the nature of their abuses. As noted by Mueller et al. (2021), “The frequency of storytelling in the #MeToo social media postings by women across geographic areas, races, ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and political affiliations shifted the cultural narrative of gendered violence from being an individual problem to being a legitimate social problem.” As more stories were shared using the hashtag on X online, it heightened public awareness of the movement and created immense pressure for change.

The overwhelming response to the use of the #MeToo hashtag propelled it into the spotlight, resulting in widespread affirmative action. In the United States, more than 52 bills were passed following the # MeToo movement to add protection to victims of sexual harassment and assault, and to promote gender equality in employment (Williams, Singh, & Mezey, 2019). The changes introduced included mandatory sexual harassment training for all lawmakers, their staff, and congressional employees, and for the first time, made them personally liable for sexual harassment settlements (Golshan, 2017).

These changes were not just restricted to the United States. Peking University adopted a policy of zero tolerance, whilst in Sweden, the government tightened legislation to improve reporting and establish clearer accountability for perpetrators (Stubbs-Richardson et al., 2024).

Star Power influencing Grassroots Movements.

Celebrities play an important role in advancing and elevating grassroots movements to the forefront of public conversations. They can engage and quickly distribute messages by leveraging their large online network of followers on the platform. In a study conducted by Alatas et al. (2023), it identified that tweets directly authored by celebrities are 100% more likely to be liked or retweeted, and in fact, 280% more likely to be retweeted, than comparable messages passed on by messages lacking the celebrity’s direct involvement.” While Alyssa Milano’s original tweet may have triggered the elevation of the MeToo movement, other well-known celebrities’ participation in the online conversation helped propel it globally. Following the tweet, actresses Rose McGowan, Ashley Judd, Cate Blanchett, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Uma Thurman joined in the conversation, either by sharing their own experiences of sexual harassment or expressing solidarity with the victims (Austin et al., 2023). Their participation empowered other women to speak up and expose the widespread prevalence of sexual harassment in the workplace.

Similarly, with the BlackLivesMatter movement, sports stars like Lebron James, Colin Kaepernick, and Travis Kelce helped to further the cause of racial injustices by engaging their followers in conversation. The support they showed helped to raise its profile, as noted by Kim (2023), who found that “approximately three-quarters of sports fans believe that athletes had an important impact on the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement.”

Content Moderation

Known for its ability to elevate grassroots movements to the public’s attention, it has also faced criticism for its content moderation policies. Critics, including Elon Musk, have labelled them as barriers to freedom of speech. As part of his purchase of the platform in 2022, Musk argued that “free speech is meaningless unless you allow people you don’t like to say things you don’t like” (Polumbo, 2023). Following the movements of #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo, the platform became a battleground over the company’s ability to regulate content. Harris (2024) highlights this by noting heavy-handed attempts to suppress misinformation through content moderation run the risk of amplifying some of its worst effects”.

Due to the moderation rules imposed by the platform at the time, prominent journalists, activists, and individuals saw their accounts suspended or deleted based on the content they had shared. This is highlighted by research completed by Tukfekci (2018), who identified that personal stories of sexual assault were often captured “for violating its rules on graphic content, inadvertently disempowering survivors by removing their voices at the moment they most need to be heard” (Tufekci, 2018). As a result, this would inadvertently silence them, undermine the movement, and deny their experiences in adding weight to the movement.

The platform has also come under the influence of government pressures. Countries like India, Pakistan, and Turkey have in the past pressured X and other platforms to remove content or suspend journalists or activists who have threatened their ideologies. In Europe, legislation passed by France and Germany requires social media platforms to identify and remove hate speech. Pierri (2023) argued, “Content moderation is a political issue, which has become increasingly contested. How political actors frame this issue, and how successful they are in doing so, matters”​.

Summary

Real-world change can be created through X. Its power to connect people through online networks and engage in social discourse to drive social change is demonstrated through #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo movements. Through hashtags, the platform can create an online network of disparate users who can collectively champion social inequalities, seek justice, and demand change locally and globally. While content moderation policies can hinder all voices from being heard, public figures can lend weight to the movement by engaging their large following in the conversation. Social change is created through X’s dynamic ability to amplify marginalised voices, quickly distribute information, and consolidate conversations that demand social change from political and business leaders.

References

Alatas, V., Chandrasekhar, A. G., Mobius, M., Olken, B. A., & Paladines, C. (2023). Do celebrity endorsements matter? A Twitter experiment promoting vaccination in Indonesia. The Economic Journal, 134(659), 913–933. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/uead102

Austin, J. T., Wong, N., & Owens, A. C. (2023). The hashtag heard around the world: Social media users’ perceptions and responses to the #MeToo hashtag. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 31(5), 389–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2022.2083136

Bogen, K., Wood, M., & Burkeman, N. (2019). MeToo: Disclosure and response to sexual victimization on Twitter. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(3), 457-478. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519851211

Brünker, F., Wischnewski, M., Mirbabaie, M., & Stieglitz, S. (2020). Hashtag activism on Twitter: The effects of who, what, when, and where. Social Media + Society, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/20570473241279330

Bruns, A., & Burgess, J. E. (2011). The use of Twitter hashtags in the formation of ad hoc publics. In Proceedings of the 6th European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) General Conference, Reykjavik, Iceland. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/46515/

Campbell, T. (2023). Black Lives Matter’s effect on police lethal use of force. Journal of Urban Economics, 141, 103587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2023.103587.

Coleman, L. S. (2024). “An opportunity to reclaim a place”: A critical analysis of media, memory, and BLM Plaza DC. Howard Journal of Communications, 36(1), 26-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2024.2326217.

Francis, M. M., & Wright-Rigueur, L. (2021). Black Lives Matter in historical perspective. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 17, 441–458. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-122120-100052

Gardner, T. G., & Al-Shareffi, E. (2022). Regulating police chokeholds. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology Online, 112, 111-132. https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc_online

Golshan, T. (2017, November 15). Congress just made sexual harassment prevention training mandatory for all lawmakers and their staff. Vox. https://www.vox.com/2017/11/15/16641310/congress-sexual-harassment-prevention-training

Hosterman, A. R., Johnson, N. R., Stouffer, R., & Herring, S. (2018). Twitter, social support messages, and the #MeToo movement. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 7(2), 69-91. Retrieved from https://thejsms.org.

Kim, J. (2023). The influence of issue involvement on fan’s response toward professional team’s Black Lives Matter initiatives: The moderating effect of team identification (Master’s thesis). Graduate School of Physical Education, Seoul National University. https://s-space.snu.ac.kr/handle/10371/196912

Leuschner, A., & Fernández Pinto, M. (2022). Exploring the limits of dissent: The case of shooting bias. Synthese, 200(1), 326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-022-03783-y

Murakawa, N. (2023). Say their names, support their killers: Police reform after the 2020 Black Lives Matter uprisings. UCLA Law Review, 69(6), 1430-1485. https://www.uclalawreview.org/say-their-names-support-their-killers-police-reform-after-the-2020-black-lives-matter-uprisings/

Pierri, F., Luceri, L., Chen, E., & Ferrara, E. (2023). How does Twitter account moderation work? Dynamics of account creation and suspension on Twitter during major geopolitical events. EPJ Data Science, 12(43). https://doi.org/10.1140/epjds/s13688-023-00420-7

Polumbo, B. (2023, April 14). Elon Musk promised free speech on Twitter. He’s betrayed it again and again | Opinion. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/elon-musk-promised-free-speech-twitter-hes-betrayed-it-again-again-opinion-1794478

Powell, M., Kim, A. D., & Smaldino, P. E. (2023). Hashtags as signals of political identity: #BlackLivesMatter and #AllLivesMatter. PLOS ONE, 18(6), e0286524. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286524

Samayeen, N., Wong, A., & McCarthy, C. (2022). Space to breathe: George Floyd, BLM Plaza, and the monumentalization of divided American urban landscapes. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 54(14), 2341-2351. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1795980

Shahin, S., Nakahara, J., & Sánchez, M. (2021). Black Lives Matter goes global: Connective action meets cultural hybridity in Brazil, India, and Japan. New Media & Society, 26(1), 216-235. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211057106

Stubbs-Richardson, M., Gilbreath, S., Paul, M., & Reid, A. (2024). It’s a global #MeToo: A cross-national comparison of social change associated with the movement. Feminist Media Studies, 24(6), 1330-1349. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2023.2231654

Toraman, C., Şahinuç, F., & Yilmaz, E. H. (2022). BlackLivesMatter 2020: An analysis of deleted and suspended users on Twitter. In Proceedings of the 14th ACM Web Science Conference, 290-295. https://doi.org/10.1145/3492453.3525317

Williams, J. B., Mezey, N., & Singh, L. (2021). #BlackLivesMatter: From protest to policy. William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, and Social Justice, 28(1), 103-117. https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmjowl/vol28/iss1/6

Williams, J. B., Singh, L., & Mezey, N. (2019). #MeToo as Catalyst: A Glimpse into 21st Century Activism. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 2019(22), 1-21. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol2019/iss1/22