Crisis events accelerate the formation of hacktivist collective identity, as decentralised yet coordinated social network sites (SNSs) provide support to social movements

 

The rise of social networking sites (SNSs) has empowered individuals to globally form collective identities and organise movements around social issues. SNSs offer flexibility for users to connect over shared interests, facilitating identity work through normative narratives. Crises fuel collective identity formation as SNSs help coordinate grassroots reactions. This paper examines how the hacktivist collective Anonymous leverages SNSs to shape a collective activist identity during crises. Anonymous exemplifies a decentralised online social movement. The relationship between crises and accelerated identity convergence will be discussed through case studies like Operation Payback against PayPal initiated by Anonymous. This case study explores strategies employed and helps explain the transformative potential of SNSs in fostering democratic expression, community-building and networked activism. This paper argues that SNSs have changed the dynamics of identity formation and activism by enabling flexible global connections and participation that shape collective identities over time.

 

Keywords: Anonymous, Social networking sites. Collective identity, Identity formation, Online Communities, Grassroots mobilisation, Activism Identity

 

 

 

The internet, particularly social networking sites (SNSs), has empowered people to advocate and express their voices through the flexibility to shape online identities.  Individual and collective identity formation is a complex and ever-changing process involving cycles of concealment, discovery, revelation, and rediscovery as individuals manage and perform their sense of self within shifting social realities, thereby enabling expressions of the authentic “self” and community building (Papacharissi, 2011).  Through leveraging the accessibility and interconnected nature of social networking sites, netizens can connect with others while also flexibly shaping and expressing their online identities (Abidin, 2021).  With social media integrating different aspects of individual identity within a shared digital sphere, both individual and social needs are fulfilled via networked sociability. Examining how individual identities interact and converge into collective expressions within online communities provides insight into identity formation processes in virtual environments.  This conference paper will first explore how the affordances of social networking sites allow for collective identities to emerge and coordinate grassroots mobilisation around social and political issues. The second part will discuss the relationship between crisis events and identity formation within virtual communities. A case study of the hacktivist collective Anonymous will then be introduced and analysed to demonstrate how periods of crisis accelerate the convergence of members’ identities into a cohesive hacktivist identity through tactics used to respond to social issues. To gain a deeper understanding of these dynamics, the framework developed by Kahn and Kellner (2004) regarding how digital technologies have empowered collective networks will guide an exploration of how cyber communities like Anonymous have leveraged tools such as SNSs and hacktivism since the late 1990s for advocacy purposes (Kahn & Kellner, 2004).

 

The affordance of SNSs offers a flexible environment for global individuals to form collective identities. As Leaver (2015) and other scholars have suggested, the internet is not merely a virtual place for individuals to perform and manage their own identities in total isolation (Leaver, 2015). Rather, digital platforms also provide venues for individuals to participate and contribute as part of broader communities and social groups, where identities are shaped continually through social interaction (Khan & Kellner, 2004; Delanty, 2018).  As Gal et al. (2016) note, the formation of collective identity involves constant identity work through discourse and narratives that produce, enact, and validate shared codes and values among members (Gal et al., 2016).  The almost instant connectivity offered by the internet creates more diverse identity development as users connect over shared interests, lived experiences, and political stances, influencing and being influenced by one another within these digitally connected environments (Papacharissi, 2011).  Additionally, non-virtual social groups like families also play a role in representing individuals’ digital legacies over time by generating digital traces and archives about people online (Leaver, 2015).  Furthermore, the advancement of technologies has increased internet accessibility and reduced the costs of internet devices like computers, phones and laptops, encouraging more people to connect online (Downing, 2018).  When developing new platforms and products, companies focus on priorities that drive mass adoption, such as personalised features that enhance user experience through real-time sharing and instant connectivity (Graham, 2018).  This helps to reduce barriers to participation in online communities for exchanging information.  At the same time, Delanty (2018) stated that the lack of geographic restraints online means modern communities must develop cognitive capacities to imagine themselves symbolically as united collectives extending beyond local ties (Delanty, 2018).  As Graham (2018) also points out, the rise in accessible digital connectivity enabled by technologies has allowed new forms of activist media to emerge integrated with organised advocacy efforts (Graham, 2018).  Specifically, SNSs offer an environment that is helpful to the adaptable identity development without physical limitations, as users continually learn from one another. Thus, through leveraging global connectivity, social media facilitates the organic formation and expression of collective identities within networked settings free from geographic confines.

 

Controversial and crisis events stimulate the development of collective identities within online communities, as SNSs helped organise grassroots reactions and direct united action in response. Scholars like della Porta and Pavan (2018) have examined how both traditional and modern digital media are leveraged by movements to organise offline actions and form collective identities during times of crisis (della Porta & Pavan, 2018).  While mainstream media helped spread awareness of emerging issues, the gatekeeping role of outlets meant messages could be filtered and constrained by their perceptions of newsworthiness.  However, digital platforms now allow individuals more control over inputting diverse voices and perspectives into public discourse.  Langman (2005) explained that the internet has enabled the emergence of a new type of globally coordinated yet decentralised social movement, referred to as “internet-worked social movements”, ISMs (Langman, 2005).  

 

ISMs are characterised by flexible advocacy campaigns that are non-hierarchical in structure without centralised leadership, meaning that rather than relying on centred leadership as traditional campaigns, ISMs organise social change efforts via interconnectivity and organising methods that leverage networked connections (Langman, 2005).  As evidenced by movements employing ISMs for “e-mobilization”, online networks facilitate the flexible development of collective identities as networked groups emerge around shared stances and transform online agreement into real-world action (della Porta & Pavan, 2018).  In the past, figures like Gandhi successfully leveraged media attention globally through tactical demonstrations emphasising tactics of nonviolent civil disobedience.  “Satyagraha” protest methodology centred on truth and firmness as inspired by Hindu philosophies (Scalmer, 2018).  Both confrontational and peaceful resistance have at times leveraged media, though confrontational action tends to attract priority due to perceived newsworthiness.  However, as Graham (2018) notes, contemporary digital technologies offer alternative channels of activist media beyond corporate power (Graham, 2018).  For example, people practising ISMs using social platforms such as Blogs, Twitter, and Facebook directly contributed to collective actions seen in movements like the Egyptian uprising and Occupy Wall Street (Graham, 2018).  Additionally, Castells (1997) described that different types of collective identities emerge online that all involve individuals connecting over common political, cultural, or social ties (Castells, 1997).  The internet allows these identities to surpass geographical restrictions in more flexible and diverse ways than traditional local communities.  However, they are all still centred around a shared group affiliation on a psychological level.  

 

Castells (1997) described collective identities as sub-categorised as resistance, project, and social movement identity (Castells, 1997).  For instance, social movement identities suggest connecting people globally in solidarity around struggles for human rights and justice, inspiring online and offline activism exemplified by movements advocating such as women’s and racial justice as well as Gandhi’s satyagraha protests (Castells, 1997).  During the 1990s early internet age, people had already begun using the internet to organise social movements (ISMs).  Groups like ANSWER, MoveOn, and United for Peace & Justice leveraged the internet to influence more people to unite against issues of inequality and initiated large protests that spread globally, as discussed by Kahn and Kellner (2004).  Gradually, new technologies such as blogs and wikis further contributed to advocacy by offering a way for people to stay informed and connected in the virtual world (Langman, 2005). These platforms allowing individuals to express themselves by sharing information and debating different topics led to wider mass participation surrounding social causes. Social networking sites provide online spaces for individuals to connect, spark concerns, and alliances and join together to form collective identity and eventually turn into collective actions.

 

The formation of the collective anonymous identity accelerates during times of crisis through coordinated action on issues.  Anonymous is a hacktivist collective that organises advocacy both virtual and offline to challenge issues of social and political inequality.  While some view membership as limited to professional hackers, Wiedemann (2014) explained that anyone can participate in Anonymous with no leadership structures or single representatives (Wiedemann, 2014).  Burford (2013) described Anonymous as “an identity, it is the art of being indignant. It is the art of being one, yet being nothing” (Burford, 2013, p. 96). Burford’s (2013) study focuses on analysing how Anonymous has evolved into a global campaign advocating for information freedom through the utilisation of both legal and illegal collective activities.  Anonymous is best known for coordinated cyberattacks, first targeting PayPal in 2010 in response to the company suspending processing of donations to WikiLeaks after government pressure related to leaked classified documents released by WikiLeaks (Burford, 2013). In response, Anonymous launched a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack named Operation Payback, which temporarily forced PayPal to shut down and significantly impacted revenues (Burford, 2013).  Earlier in 2008, Anonymous also launched offline protests against the Church of Scientology where all members wore Guy Fawkes masks (the adoption of the Guy Fawkes mask also serves as a symbol surrounding Anonymous, enhancing its countercultural image; it is repurposed from the film “V for Vendetta,” the mask symbolises dissent and resistance against government authority (Dörter, 2023)), demonstrating Anonymous’ capability to confront authority both virtually and offline, employing both legal and illegal means (Burford, 2013). 

 

As described by Langman (2005), Anonymous operates similarly to an ISMs through its no leader and decentralised structures (Langman, 2005). The collective is coordinated by SNSs that shape how individual connectivity transforms into action, as Wiedemann (2014) explains (Wiedemann, 2014).  For Anonymous, SNSs like 4chan facilitated discussion and mobilisation without surveillance (Wiedemann, 2014).  During the time of crisis or political tension tended to help the individual identities of members bond together more strongly as one cohesive activist group.  This is done through united stance points and coordinated efforts addressing social and political issues.  Participation can look different for different people, ranging from one-off events to ongoing participation in the long run. The anonymity provided allows for a diverse range of people to participate in demonstrations without revealing their real identities. Offline and cyber protests are mainly organised online, with some protests occurring solely in virtual space, SNSs enable global participation across borders by transcending physical distance. Wiedemann (2014) argues online collectives are mediated by technical infrastructures shaping connectivity and collectivity (Wiedemann, 2014). For Anonymous, this includes how platforms like 4chan transformed individual engagement into coordinated collective action.  Living digital networks expose new forms of spontaneous, mass mobilisation and joint creative practices impacting the speed, reach and flexibility of grassroots mobilisation.

 

Analysing Anonymous’ tactical responses to different crisis events offers insights into how collective identities employ strategic mobilisation and narrative shaping via SNSs.  According to Auty (2004), hacktivism encompasses a spectrum of techniques, from subtle virtual protests such as creating online advocacy campaigns to more confrontational actions like DDoS attacks (Auty, 2004).  While some view Anonymous as empowering due to its ability to attract mainstream media attention, its actions often raise concerns about legality and ethics. However, analysing their tactics can offer insights into how collective identities emerge and shape themselves on social networking sites.  In Dörrter’s (2023) paper, he examines the strategies employed by Anonymous to navigate cultural nuances using concepts like “carnivalesque,” “detournement,” and “spectacle.” Engaging in a blend of mischief, pranks, and provocation, Anonymous emphasises its appropriation of mass media cultural practices (Dörrter, 2023). Through hacktivist actions, even those leveraging prevalent cultural imagery, individuals may transition from passive participants to becoming active activists.  One example of Anonymous’s tactical response can be seen in the protests against the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement in 2012 (Betlej, 2023).  Global protests rise over concerns about its impact on the freedom of the internet.  Anonymous launched hacking attacks and defaced US and EU government websites promoting ACTA, delivering a warning message (Dörrter, 2023). Despite the lack of media spotlight, the attack successfully united diverse groups against the threat of ACTA as a collective (Dörrter, 2023).

Anonymous also exemplifies a countercultural movement, challenging societal norms and power structures.  Anonymous aligns itself with network systems to challenge boundaries and information freedom, reflecting and undermining cultural practices and norms (Dörter, 2023).  “Trolls” manipulate online debate via provocation which is described as ‘carnivalesque’ by Dörter (2023), Anonymous’s activism blends playfulness and spectacle with political activism, which might limit the impact or spread of Anonymous’s activities or message (Dörter, 2023).  Postmes and Brunsting (2002) highlighted the transformative potential of the SNSs in fostering collective action, fostering an abundance of activism forms ranging from subtle to confrontation (Postmens & Brunsting, 2002).  They suggested that online collective action is triggered by social identities, drawing parallels between online and offline activism. Gal (et al., 2016) explore the construction of collective identity online, highlighting the significant role of narratives in outlining group boundaries and nurturing alternative identities (Gal et al., 2016).  They stated that online communities serve as breeding grounds for diverse narratives, challenging dominant perspectives and emboldening marginalised factions. Furthermore, Kahn and Kellner (2004) explain the internet’s impact on grassroots activism, providing an arsenal of e-tools for organisation, networking, and subverting power structures (Kahn & Kellner, 2004).  They underscore the important role of SNSs like blogs in facilitating democratic expression and encouraging community connection, thereby highlighting the transformative potential of online platforms in instigating societal change.  Langman (2005) also further examines the emergence of ISMs, highlighting their ability to surpass traditional social movement frameworks and establish decentralised networks that extend across geographical boundaries (Langman, 2005).

In conclusion, the evolution of collective identities within online communities, driven by the affordances of social networking sites (SNSs), has changed the landscape of activism and identity formation compared to the traditional media. The flexible and interconnectivity nature offered by digital platforms has empowered individuals worldwide to curate and express their identities while simultaneously connecting with others internationally. Through discussion, narratives, and shared experiences, individuals participate in collective identity work, creating bonds and mobilising around shared values and causes that transcend geographical boundaries.  Crisis and controversial events have served as fuel for the formation of collective identities, with SNSs serving as critical organising platforms for grassroots reactions and collective action. Movements like Anonymous emphasise the convergence of individual identities into cohesive activist groups during periods of crisis, leveraging both virtual and offline strategies to go against societal norms and power structures.  Scholarly research, such as studies from Postmes and Brunsting (2002), Gal et al. (2016), Kahn and Kellner (2004), and Langman (2005), outlined the transformative potential of online platforms in fostering collective action, challenging dominant narratives via ISMs, and go beyond geographical constraints. These studies shed light on the important role of SNSs in facilitating democratic expression, encouraging community connection, and facilitating the emergence of decentralised networks.  In summary, the dynamic evolution of collective identities within SNSs reflects the complex dynamic between individual concerns, technological affordances, and societal contexts. By analysing case studies such as Anonymous and drawing upon scholarly perspectives, we gain a deeper understanding of how online platforms shape identity formation processes and propel social change forward. Moving forward, continued research into the intersections of technology, activism, and identity will be the key to navigating the complexities of the digital ear and harnessing its potential for social transformation, for good or bad.

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